Police Operations

Traffic enforcement is an important part of policing. For example, red light runners are responsible for an estimated 800 deaths and 200,000 injuries each year. Sometimes the traffic unit and patrol unit are one and the same (in small departments), but the traffic unit is usually separate (in most large departments) and is responsible for other matters -- the reduction of accidents, facilitating orderly flow, and sometimes the collection of parking meter revenue (although most cities farm out parking meter revenue collection to a separate non-police organization). In a few departments, the traffic unit also contains engineers, and the forensic science known as scientific speed detection is often practiced by police officers assigned to a traffic unit. Most traffic work involves catching speeders, and a variety of tools are available to do this -- RADAR, VASCAR, LIDAR, PHOTO-RADAR, and just plain PHOTO, as with sophisticated, computer-programmable traffic control devices (see example). A few people like working in traffic units, and go on to become consultants, engineers, or experts at accident reconstruction. The vehicles that traffic officers drive are different from the vehicles that patrol officers drive. A traffic division (if it exists) is less likely to use the standard Ford Crown Victoria as a cruiser, and is more likely to use trucks, vans, or other types of vehicles.

Patrol, however, is regarded as the "backbone" of policing since it comprises 60-80% of any police department's roster of personnel. It's the most important and visible operation of a police department. Patrol is the unit that answers calls, delivers service, and prevents crime. It's the most physically demanding job position that involves being a generalist, developing experience in all-purpose policing, and dealing with angry, discourteous, or violent individuals. Both traffic and patrol work are dangerous, but patrol or crime prevention work is somewhat more dangerous because it responds to all different kinds of crime. Despite its importance, patrol is often the lowest paid and lowest status area of policing (although it depends upon geographic area - see chart below). It's the area that breeds most police cynicism because the patrol officer has to be all things to all people. A lot of patrol work is "downtime," and only about 15-30% of patrol work actually involves crime. The scheduling and shiftwork causes problems and/or stress for most officers. Patrol work is always done in uniform, although a few crime reduction details (CRD), such as responding to a particularly high property crime problem in a neighborhood, may involve undercover work.

Historically, there have been a number of purposes to patrol, but Orlando Wilson's (1977) view has predominated much of twentieth century thought -- to be alert to anything that might jeopardize the comfort, safety and welfare of the people and to correct anything improper. Here's a partial list of patrol objectives:

The knowledge requirements for being a patrol officer are very complex, and the following list illustrates exactly how much of a generalist one needs to be:

Some interesting discussions could ensue over the following controversies in patrol work: Should patrol officers do "good Samaritan" deeds like helping change flat tires? People locked out of cars? Unlicensed marital counseling? Taxi service? Escort service? Welfare checks on shut-ins? Security inspections? Animal control? Lost and Found? Are there places where a patrol unit should NOT go? Election polls? Red light districts? Where would the police presence be regarded as oppressive? Are women as good as men at being patrol officers? Should college education be required to become a patrol officer? How much should patrol officers be paid?

The Geographical Variation in Wages for Police Patrol Officers
	Average Hourly Wage	Average Annual Wage
Indiana	$16.67	$34,680
N. Carolina	$15.58	$32,640
Georgia	$13.60	$29,610
Washington	$21.51	$44,340
New Hampshire	$24.70	$49,730
National	$19.52	$40,590

"Proactive" = going out with a fixed objective in mind
"Reactive" = waiting for anything to happen
"Routine" = generally means "random"

"Committed" = time spent answering calls for service
"Downtime" = time spent doing patrol (each eight and a half hour work day has 550 minutes, and about 200-300 of this time is downtime) Most departments calculate beat boundaries, besides using other factors, by trying to equalize downtime across all beats.

"Flat deployment" = equal distribution across shifts, days of week, location
"Differential Police Response" = variation in the speed and type of police response based upon an analysis of the urgency and/or importance of the call
"Proportionate assignment" = determining beat areas on the record of calls for service (CFS). No patrol beat should be larger than what it takes a car three minutes to get to.
"Workload Allocation Formula" = take the average hours of work per shift, divide it by the actual shift length multiplied by the committed time and you've got the number of units needed per shift. The basic formula is 5 officers per beat which includes a generous relief factor.

Automobile Patrol -- The most common form of police patrol (steel cocoons). They can patrol large areas and have great speed and flexibility. They can transport equipment, personnel, and prisoners. Their disadvantages include isolation from the public (windows are usually rolled up) and some restrictions in areas that can be accessed. One-officer patrol cars have been shown to be just as safe, and more productive, than two-officer patrol cars. K-9 assistance and vehicle-mounted TV can serve as "partner". Other studies have shown smaller, more compact police cars are not only more economical but improve perceptions of public safety. Many police cars are not painted but treated with a pressure-sensitive film to enhance image and visibility at night. The police car is considered by most patrol officers as an extension of the uniform and a reflection of personal professionalism. They usually have excellent radio and communications equipment, and increasingly, contain Mobile Data Terminals (MDTs) that allow access to department files (AWWS), NCIC, and the Internet.

Aircraft Patrol -- This is patrol by airplane or helicopter, and a surprising number of large police departments have it (from 25-50%). The trend is to make use of their multifunction capabilities: search & rescue, medivac, transport, surveillance, ground support, etc. Helicopters are more common than airplanes by a two to one margin, mostly due to acquiring surplus equipment from the Defense department. Aviation units are expensive to operate as the fuel costs are astronomical.

Bicycle Patrol -- This is ideal in a densely populated area, and officers are often able to travel greater distances at faster rates than with vehicular means. The bicycle also offers the advantage of stealth, and can go places cars cannot go, like down alleys, dirt paths, and so forth. It's estimated that bicycles can cover 4-6 times the area as foot patrol can. Bicycle patrol also enhances citizen contact. It is a relatively low cost method, but it's main disadvantage is it can't be used well during inclement weather. In the decade between 1990-2000, police departments vastly increased their bicycle patrols.

Foot Patrol -- historically the oldest form of patrol work, but today only constitutes about 6% of all policing. It's known to reduce citizen apathy and has witnessed a resurgence in recent years. Programs in Michigan and New Jersey are generally cited as examples of the successes of foot patrol. The Flint Michigan Neighborhood Foot Patrol Program of 1978 involved 14 neighborhoods and 22 officers. It reduced crime by a small amount (9%), call for service (down 42%), and generally had a amazingly high impact on reducing fear of crime (down 60%). The Newark New Jersey Program of 1981 found no effect on the crime rate, but about the same amazingly high reduction in fear of crime and perceptions of citizen safety. It's generally believed that 60% is about what reduction in fear of crime you can expect from foot patrol.

Mounted Patrol -- Many of the same reasons that prompted a return to foot patrol have been offered as justifications for horse patrol. They are especially well suited for duty in public parks and crowd disorder situations. They are good at public relations (much better than dogs) since children always want to pet the horse. Believe it or not, however, horses are more expensive to maintain than police cars. And, you can't carry a lot of equipment on a horse or use it at night.

Motorcycle Patrol -- Motorcycles (and snowmobiles in some places) usually have the same insignia as patrol cars and are better suited for congested traffic areas than patrol cars. They are dangerous and there's little protection from gunfire with them.

Watercraft Patrol -- These units vary in size and responsibility, and about half of all police departments have a boat (and use or don't use it).

Aggressive Patrol - aka "crackdowns" (DUI roadblocks). Typically results in citizen dissatisfaction, but there is a residual deterrence effect in the area for a short time.

Community Policing - A philosophy designed to replace legalistic and/or bureaucratic styles of policing; a focus on disorder, decay, and incivilities. Generally considered the brainchild of Robert Trojanowicz.

Directed Patrol - The targeting of specific times and locations, usually locations. Typically results in displacing crime to other geographic areas.

Hi-Intensity Patrol - A controversial technique first pioneered in Pennsylvania where an undercover officer goes into a bar, observes drunken patrons leaving the bar, and then radios their description to a uniformed patrol officer waiting down the street to bust them for DUI right after they leave.

Operation Clean Sweep - A technique focusing upon getting drug dealers behind bars; a supply-side strategy. Typically results in systemic violence. Today widely used in Weed (sweep) & Seed Programs.

Operation Maximum Effort - A technique implemented in Detroit and Kansas City involving raids and/or protests on crack houses.

Operation Pressure Point - A technique implemented in NYC to arrest the users of drugs; a demand-side strategy. Examples include arresting buyers buying from their cars.

Preventive Patrol - aka "random" patrol where the officers avoid predictability, but above all, stay within their assigned beats or districts. The Kansas City Patrol Experiment of 1974 found this method ineffective.

Problem-Oriented Policing - A philosophy designed to get the police to work smarter, not harder by scanning for creative solutions to common problems; a focus on hunches and nonpolice solutions with police as "brokers" of service. Generally considered the brainchild of Herman Goldstein.

Saturation Patrol - The targeting, but more typically the doubling of allocated levels of personnel of specific times and locations, usually times. Examples would include the practice of clearing off the streets outside of the bars after sporting events in the UK with lights and sound. The strategy was first tried in the US during 1950 in Operation 25 in NYC which actually forced the police to first learn Spanish but dropped violent crime by 90%.

Split Force Policing - This is the idea of requiring half your patrol force to look after specific assigned tasks while the other half roams freely, acting as a reserve to be called in when necessary. Wilmington, Delaware is a good example where half the force was a call-answering group and the other half a criminal interception group.

Detectives tend to be considered the elite and are usually a highly paid part of a police force. A Rand Report in 1975 looked at 153 large departments and showed that 50% of detectives could be eliminated without significantly affecting the clearance rates. Detectives actually "triage" their cases anyway, and a few use computerized solvability models (much like in Differential Police Response). Detectives are consummate bureaucrats. They spend an inordinate amount of time at their desks reading reports, completing paperwork, holding meetings, and in general, discussing criminal investigative procedures. Normally, 10-15% of a police department consists of detectives. Specialization only occurs within larger departments.

Detectives handle three kinds of cases: (1) walk-throughs -- where the suspect has already been identified and apprehended; (2) where-are-theys -- where the suspect has been identified but yet to be apprehended; and (3) whodunits -- where the suspect has yet to be identified. The type of case dictates the amount of effort exerted by the detective and the types of action taken. Walk-throughs and where-are-theys receive the most attention by detectives. However, 80% of all crimes solved are really accomplished via the hard work of patrol officers who never get the credit.

In summary, the Rand Report sparked what is called the "research revolution" in policing from 1974 to 1984. This revolution included the following:

PRINTED RESOURCES
Adams, T. (2001). Police Field Operations. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
Hale, C. (1994) Police Patrol: Operations & Management. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall. [Sample Pages].
More, H. (2001). Patrol Field Problems & Solutions. Springfield: Charles Thomas.
Payton, G. & Amaral, M. (1996). Patrol Operations and Enforcement Tactics. Austin, TX: Criminal Justice Services & Publications.
Wilson, O. & McLaren, R. (1977). Police Administration, 4e. NY: McGraw Hill.