STRANGER VIOLENCE

Most violent crimes are committed by intimates or acquaintances, but an increasing amount of crime is being committed by strangers.  By many accounts, stranger crime like child abduction has already reached epidemic proportions. The phrase "stranger crime" stems from Wolfgang's (1958) early research on homicide which divided murder into two categories: primary homicide, involving nonstrangers or acquaintances; and secondary homicide, involving assailants unknown to the victim. Rather than using the awkward phrase "secondary homicide", the terms "stranger crime" caught on. Wolfgang and at least one of his students, Marc Riedel (1993), held to a belief that understanding stranger crime unlocked secrets about the development and functioning of a society.  Stranger violence is behind most fear of crime.  It's what people think of when they talk about "street crime".  It's what the criminal justice system spends the most resources on.  Spontaneous encounters between strangers resulting in violence is a major threat to societal order. 

Stranger violence tends to occur in certain geospatial locations known for disorder, such as bars/taverns or wherever unruly people are jammed together.  As people compete for space and recognition, stranger violence can erupt. Most criminological explanations are purely sociological, as certain circumstances are seen as "ripe" for arguments and conflicts to escalate into explosive encounters.  Lifestyle and routine activities are the primary explanations for victimization.  Other types of encounters, such as those involving serial killers and stranger rape, may take place in isolated locations, but strangers, in general, prefer the anonymity of big cities. Other stranger crimes, like assault, cut across the urban-rural dimension, and occur everywhere.

The following list summarizes explanations in the field of criminology for stranger violence:

(Assignment: try to create a sensible acronym for these,
like P.F. CRAIG by substituting A for D as in Alcohol/Drugs)

Instinctual, or evolutionary, explanations are drawn from the fields of biology and anthropology, suggesting that males build up vast amounts of aggressive, sexual energy, and come to prey upon more vulnerable human beings to eliminate competition for sexual partners or to hoard more "stuff" than others in some kind of instinctual competitive instinct for survival.  Even more speculative is the hunch that many investigators and profilers often have that even property crimes, like burglary, are somehow sexually exhilarating for the offender. 

Personality trait theories often include some mention of impaired neurological function, but psychologists also often link violence to watching TV, traumatic childhood experiences, low intelligence, mental illness, impaired cognitive processes, and abnormal personality structures.  Stranger violence is an area where the diagnosis of psychosis is not all that uncommon.

Drug, or psychopharmacological, explanations have strong empirical support.  Up to 80% of stranger violence is drug-related.  The alcohol-violence link is the strongest.  Drugs can entrap people into a life of crime (the enslavement hypothesis), escalate already-existing criminal tendencies (the escalation hypothesis), and/or produce spin-off violence related to the drug trade (systemic violence).

Gun, or firearm availability, is a facilitating factor in most stranger violence.  Most guns (80%) used in crime are stolen or obtained via an illegal black market.  The mere presence of handguns is strongly related to suicides and escalation of interpersonal conflicts.

Family ineffectiveness, or dysfunction, has been implicated in stranger violence. Extensive research implicates rejecting, ineffective, or abusive parents.  Parents who fail to set appropriate limits or use inconsistent discipline (up to and including abuse) often produce children who become criminals later in life.

Gang membership always requires that members embrace the use of violence. All other characteristics or motives for joining a gang are secondary to this primary valuation of violence.  Nearly 100% of gang members possess a gun or other weapon.  Gangs create stranger violence with initiation ceremonies, retaliations, and turf protection.

Cultural values (sometimes called the subculture of violence thesis) posit that in large, inner-city areas, subcultural norms develop that are at odds (disreputable crime) with society's conventions and traditional ways of doing things, and that these norms are stratified along racial and class lines.  It's believed by many criminologists that this is the primary explanation behind the growth of urban violence.

Regional values (sometimes called the Southerness hypothesis or Gastil-Hackney thesis) involve the idea that there exists a distinctive Southern culture predating the Civil War that tolerates violence.  Researchers often study such things as the South's propensity for violence, gun ownership, dueling, strong military traditions, frontier living, and exaggerated sense of honor among males.

ROBBERY

The most common motive for stranger violence is robbery. Seven out of ten robberies are committed by strangers.  Each year, about 600,000 robberies occur in the United States, accounting for about 5% of all reported index crimes. Approximately 40-50% of robberies are committed with firearms. Robbery is a form of theft, distinguished from larceny by the use of threat or force or at least the possibility of force. If there is a struggle between the victim and the offender, it will very likely be classified as a crime of robbery.  Robbery is also classifiable by the degree of force; thus, armed robbery can be considered a more serious crime than robbery without a weapon. 

Robbery is the most feared crime in our society because it's a hybrid crime. It's both a property and violent crime. Robbery occurs more frequently than either rape or homicide. Even when victims do not sustain extensive injury or loss, they are often forced to suffer threats of violence and bodily harm at the hands of their assailant. Both property and personal safety are placed at substantial risk during a robbery. The victim encounters the robber face-to-face, and a person who is robbed immediately experiences a total loss of control. When a weapon is involved, this reaction is even more acute, and can cause both short-term and long-term crisis reactions. Victim reactions include: Shock; Anxiety; Numbness; Anger; Disbelief; Despair; Fear; Depression; Confusion; Humiliation; Helplessness; Shame; Denial; and Guilt.

Of all violent crimes, robbery is the most likely to be committed by more than one offender.  About 50% of all robberies involve co-offenders. About 8% of robberies involve groups of four or more offenders. 91% of robbers are male, 64% are under the age of 25, and 59% are African-Americans.  Robbers typically attack their victims on streets or sidewalks (55%), near the victim's home (24%) in a variant called "home invasion robbery", or at a commercial establishment such as parking lots or garages (21%).  Victims are typically robbed while shopping or traveling within five miles of their home. Young black males between the ages of 12 and 15 have the highest victimization rates for robbery.  Poor families with incomes less than $7,500 are also frequently robbed.  The higher the income and educational level, the less likely the person will become a robbery victim.  Chances of becoming a robbery victim also decrease with age and substantially increase with unemployment. It's a poor person's crime.

The offense pattern of robbery is changing.  Robbers are increasingly targeting ATM machines, pedestrians, and people in their homes. And, they are becoming more lethal.  While the presence of a gun can contribute to no one getting hurt, the fatality rate for gun robberies is four per 1,000, about triple the rate in knife robberies and ten times the rate in robberies with other weapons. Victims sustain physical injury (usually by "pistol whipping") in 32% of robberies.

Street "muggings" tend to result in an average take which is about $50. The average "take" for most robberies, however, is $873, with this dollar amount reflecting an average of $400 from convenience stores to $4,015 in bank robberies.  Most of the costs of robbery are tied up in the pain and suffering of victims as well as the enormous expenses invested in this crime by the criminal justice system. 

Robbery victims experience recurrent and intrusive thoughts and dreams of the incident. Changes in eating and sleeping habits are common. A robbery is a violent, life-threatening situation, and victim reactions vary from person to person depending upon how they handle stress and what kind of support system they have. Only 4% of robbery victims seek or take advantage of mental health treatment. Each robbery victim is different; they heal at their own pace. Over time, the incident will begin to be put into perspective and be integrated into their life.

The law enforcement response typically involves giving advice like the following to the public:

Remain calm! Obey the commands of the robber and do exactly as you are told. Inform the robber of any moves you intend to take which the robber may not anticipate and could mistake as an aggressive action on your part. It is not recommended to resist the robbery. Do try to get the very best description of the robber as possible. Try to remember everything you can about the robber, including mannerisms, clothing, etc. As soon as the robber departs, immediately dial 9-1-1. Describe everything you can to the operator, including any vehicles or direction of travel. Do not hang up until the complaint operator says it is okay to do so. Protect the scene and try not to touch anything until the police arrive. Ask any witnesses to remain to talk with police about what they might have seen. Answer all questions from the police as accurately as possible. You must try to avoid becoming injured or worse. Give the robber what he or she wants, and then call the police as soon as possible.

BURGLARY

About 4.8 million burglaries are committed every year in America, and the number is declining somewhat steadily, especially for nighttime burglaries.  The average "take" from a burglary is $1,300, but this includes both residential and commercial burglaries.  The average burglar works with a team of accomplices or partners (61%), and is most likely to be male (92%) and African-American (52%). Those most likely to be burglarized are relatively poor (annual income under $7,500) Hispanic and African-American families.  Rental units and multi-family dwellings are more likely to be burglarized than single-family owned homes.  It's predominantly an urban crime that extends out to the suburbs and medium-sized towns.

Burglary is typically an economic crime which is mostly committed by drug users in order to support additional drug use and "keep the party going". These crimes are not inherently violent, but may become violent. The strongest indicator of a violent burglary is that the offender committed the crime as a result of an addictive compulsion for drugs.  Burglary is the most common crime committed to obtain money for drugs, and it's the most common prison sentence.

A typical burglar is a stranger who poses as an acquaintance, or is a newly-made acquaintance.  They must have inside information, so they often rely on tipsters about what the victim has, stake out the victim's routine, or pose as someone with a legitimate business for visiting the residence.  Phone calls (from a pay phone to see if it's still ringing when they get there) often precede the burglary. Some dispose of goods through a professional fence; others pawn the goods; exchange them for drugs; or sell them to friends and relatives.  A few keep things for themselves, especially guns and jewelry.  

CARJACKING

Carjacking is the theft or attempted theft of a motor vehicle by force or threat of force.  It accounts for 2% of 2 million auto thefts per year.  52% of the time, the carjacker is successful in stealing the vehicle.  65% of offenses happen within 5 miles from the victim's home.  In less than 1% of cases, the victim is killed, but 24% of the time, the victim is injured.  Most offenders use a gun (77%) and operate with one or more co-offenders (50%).  Most carjackings occur at night. An average of 50,000 carjackings occur each year. 

Men (over age 35) are more likely to be victimized than women. Both victim and offender tend to be African-American.  In recent years, there has been an increase in chop shops and export rings.  Fewer and fewer stolen vehicles are being recovered.  Auto theft has become a global problem.  It's also likely that a few carjackers steal vehicles to use them for short-term transportation (to get to another city) or for commission of another crime.  Joyriding is rarely a common motive anymore.  Certain types of vehicles (like large, expensive SUVs) tend to be targeted more than other vehicles.

Victims often report that what caused them to be injured was that they reacted too slowly (in turning over the keys, or getting out of the other side door).  Carjacking trauma often includes shock in how quickly the incident happened. Victims also often blame themselves. 

MURDER

The number of murders in the United States fluctuates between 20,000-25,000 annually. As many as 25% of murders go unsolved. Handguns are involved in 54% of the murders. Perpetrators of stranger murder have a better than 80 percent chance of going unpunished.

Homicide grief experts estimate that for each murder, there are seven to ten people left behind to mourn called "homicide survivors".  Any loss due to murder will be grieved in different ways because relationships with the victim were all different. Spouses will have to adjust to being a widow or widower. Parents will believe that the older generation should die first, so they will have great difficulty with the fact that their children are dead while they themselves are still live. Siblings will feel guilt in moving on with their lives, and will behave differently. Family and friends who have had a conflicted relationship with the victim will suffer a loss of hope that things could have been worked out while the victim lived.  Some family members may feel that others should not "dwell" on the murder -- that they should "give it up" or "put it behind them." Others may feel that they must learn everything that they can about the murder and fight for revenge or victim's rights through the criminal justice system.

Depending somewhat on the suddenness of the death and the stigma of the murder itself, survivors may find themselves making drastic changes in their lifestyle, including: a sense of having "changed" from the person they used to be; a greater need for dependence on others or the institutions of society; a sense of loss in social standing; and a questioning of faith or religion.  Homicide survivors may experience symptoms of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, but they are much more likely to experience a phenomenon known as "complicated mourning."  Years after the murder, survivors also find themselves having uncontrollable crying. These feelings have been called "grief spasms" or "memory embraces".

When homicide survivors first learn about the murder, they experience shock and disbelief, numbness, changes in appetite or sleeping patterns, difficulty concentrating, confusion, anger, fear and anxiety. In cases where homicide survivors have not been able to view their loved one's body -- either because it was not permitted or they felt unable to do so -- it is often difficult for them to accept the reality of the death. Many experts suggest that family members be permitted to go through the viewing process, as painful as it might be.

Then, there's usually a feeling that "the world has stopped"; they cannot understand how everyone else is able to go on about their daily routine. Later reactions often include a desire for revenge. It's not uncommon for homicide survivors to have tremendous feelings of rage toward the person(s) responsible for the murder, and they may also experience anger toward the victim for "being in the wrong place at the wrong time" or for having a lifestyle which placed them at greater risk for victimization.

There are four "tasks" of the grieving process. These include:

The first task is that of acknowledging and accepting the reality of the loss -- that the loved one is dead. Survivors often report a sense that their loved one will come up the driveway as usual at the end of the day. Others have reported that they felt compelled to follow someone who looked just like their deceased loved one. 

The second task is that mourners must acknowledge and experience the pain associated with losing their loved one, whether it be physical and/or emotional pain. Homicide survivors often find that they must put their feelings on hold as they follow court hearings, trials and numerous appeals. No matter how the pain of the loss is held back or "put aside," the mourner must experience these feelings or carry the pain of the loss for the rest of their lives.

The third task is to adjust to a life in which their loved one is no longer present. At this point, family members begin to make personal or lifestyle changes which will take them in very different directions from those planned while their loved one was still alive. The survivors will feel some guilt around these new decisions, wondering whether they are being disloyal. It is important for survivors to recognize and come to terms with these reactions and feelings.

The fourth task is that the mourner must somehow find a place for their loved one within their emotional life which can, at the same time, permit them to go on in the world. Survivors should not forget their loved one, but eventually they must realize that their lives can and do go on.

When more than one family member is lost through murder (as sometimes happens), this magnifies the "sensational" aspects of the crime, and invites more media intrusion.  Homicide survivors have little privacy. Their identities and the circumstances of the murder often become public knowledge, and they may find a microphone thrust in their faces after a court hearing. The media also tends to report inaccurate or inappropriate information about the case and may portray the offender as a victim.

In some cases, a murder victim may have been in a same-sex relationship and have not "come out" to the family before the murder. Not only must the family then come to terms with their loved one's death, but they must also confront issues surrounding his or her deviant lifestyle. In their desperate need to determine "blame" for the homicide, they may consciously or unconsciously blame the victim. 

When the crime is unsolved, the family will often try to pursue any avenue to obtain information or insights about what happened -- not only to bring the guilty party to justice, but also to protect themselves from unknown threats. Some families hire psychics or profilers to try to come up with new leads, and others become police "wannabes", listening to a scanner all day and night.

Factors which complicate the grieving process have to do with ongoing exposure to homicide-related material -- such as autopsy reports, crime scene photos, repairing or cleaning up the crime scene, trying to obtain the victim's personal effects (which may have been held as evidence), and other potentially trauma-inducing events.

Criminal Justice System Response

Most criminal justice professionals are well-trained and have sensitivity skills. However, re-victimization of family members can easily result from the way in which family members are notified of the murder, whether their loved one's body can be released by the coroner in a timely manner, how they are given information from the autopsy report, whether or not a suspect is caught, and the manner in which the investigation and/or prosecution are conducted.

Law Enforcement:
Generally, the family is frantic for information. In murders where little is known or where family members have not been ruled out as suspects, the police must withhold information. This causes the family to hate the police.  In addition, death notification is not a pleasant police duty.  It requires the notifier to have: (1) extensive, correct information; (2) avoidance of euphemisms like "He's gone to a better place"; (3) gauge how the bereaved reacts; and (4) make referral to social or community service providers.  Some police departments hold special debriefing sessions in the case of multiple deaths or mass disasters.

Coroner:
In a murder investigation, the victim's body is considered to be the primary "evidence" and there may be a delay in releasing the body to the funeral home. For this reason, funeral or memorial arrangements may be delayed, causing further distress to the surviving family. Autopsy reports may be given to family members with no explanation of the forensic or medical terms used.

Judiciary System:
Homicide survivors quickly learn that there is a great deal of difference between their expectations and the reality of how the criminal justice system works. The surviving family members often find themselves drawn into a world of legal technicalities which leave them wondering, "Where are our rights?"

Survivors find that arrests do not always result in prosecution; prosecutions do not always result in convictions; and convictions do not result in stiff sentences. Family members find that the crime has been committed against the state, not against them or their loved one. Their loved one becomes "the body," "the victim" or "the deceased" and is rarely referred to by name, which is dehumanizing. Sometimes the victim's character is called into question during the trial, causing dismay.

Homicide survivors are usually told to show little or no emotion in the courtroom so that they will not "influence the jury." This is difficult when they face the killer and hear painful details. If they are called as material witnesses by either the prosecution or defense, they will not be able to stay in the courtroom for part or all of the trial. It is not uncommon for survivors to be listed as witnesses by the defense in order to keep them out of the courtroom. If they want to know what went on in the courtroom, they have to pay a per-page fee with the court reporter afterwards.

If a "not guilty" verdict is returned, or if the sentence is perceived as too lenient, the family will feel betrayed and enraged. If the assailant was not caught, survivors must go on without a sense of closure. 

Victim/witness assistance programs help by providing information about the way the criminal justice system works and what rights and provisions exist for victims and survivors. The victim/witness coordinator typically lets the family know about changes in scheduled hearings and often assists in making arrangements for overnight stays.  Since the times and dates of proceedings frequently change, family members often feel as though they are living on "pins and needles".

If and when the defendant is found guilty, a victim impact statement will be presented to the family as part of the sentencing procedure. For most, this will be the only opportunity they have to speak on behalf of their loved one or to describe the impact the murder has had on themselves and their family.  The VIS is a description of how the crime has impacted every area of their lives. It's a way for the family to describe who the victim was as a person, as well as their pain and anguish and the ongoing ways in which the murder continues to affect them.

Surviving family members can also ask to be notified and to be present when the convicted felons come up for parole or release. Procedures for requesting notification vary; some states require that this request be put in a letter format, and other states have a specific form which must be completed and returned. Usually family members can request that their addresses not be given to the defendant or his attorney. Additionally, survivors can often request that the parole board include in their parole instructions and conditions that the assailant not contact the family in any way. If contact is made, the felon will then be in violation of parole. If the terms or conditions of parole are violated, the felon may then be forced to return to prison.

INTERNET RESOURCES:
Rights of Survivors of Homicide Victims

ASSAULT

Aggravated assault is defined as an unlawful attack by one person upon another for the purpose of inflicting severe or aggravated bodily injury. This type of assault is usually accompanied by the use of a weapon or by means likely to produce death or great bodily harm. Assault is the most common violent crime in America. Each year, there are an estimated 1.1 million incidents of aggravated assault, accounting for 61% of all violent crimes. Dangerous weapons or blunt objects, excluding knives and firearms, are used in 33% of all aggravated assaults. Firearms were used in more than 23% of all incidents (three times less than the use of firearms in homicides).  52% of assaults are committed by strangers and 48% are committed by nonstrangers.   Unlike other violent crimes, incidents of assault are represented almost evenly by strangers and nonstrangers.  55% of assaults occur during the day (6 A.M. to 6 P.M.).

Assault rates have steadily risen over the past several years.  It's a crime that occurs in both urban and rural areas. A disproportionate number of those arrested are white males; specifically, 82% were male and 18% were female, while 60% were white, and 38% were black.  The pattern of criminal assault is quite similar to homicide, except that common everyday stress tends to be more closely associated with the reasons for assault.  Motorists sometimes assault one another in something called "road rage" (see this Aggressive Driver Checklist from AAA).  Angry passengers experiencing unnecessary delays in airports, bus stations, and other transportation hubs have been known to suddenly turn on workers and each other.  Sporting events and other public ceremonies often involve brawls or "hooliganism".  

Recent victimological attention has turned to the study of medical treatment, since the effectiveness of this is usually what separates a homicide from an assault.  The "golden hour" describes a period of time in which life-saving measures can be effective.  Some hospitals are not sufficiently equipped to handle crime trauma cases, and victims have to be airlifted sometimes far away.  Most preventive advice given by police department includes the suggestion to scream loudly and run away.  Never, under any circumstances, should victims try to fight or provoke the attacker.

INTERNET RESOURCES:
NCJRS Report on Firearm Injuries

PRINTED RESOURCES:

Cook, Philip. (1991). "The Technology of Personal Violence." In Michael Tonry, ed., Crime and Justice: A Review of Research. (Volume 14). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Doerner, W. & S. Lab (1999) Victimology. Cincinnati: Anderson Publishing.
Hall, H. (1998) Lethal Violence: A Sourcebook on Domestic, Acquaintance and Stranger Violence. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Kleck, Gary. (1991). Point Blank: Guns and Violence in America. New York: Walter de Gruyter, Inc.
National Crime Prevention Council. The Art of Street Smarts: Knowing How to Protect Yourself and Your Friends Makes Good Sense. Washington, DC: National Crime Prevention Council.
Reiss, A. & J. Roth, eds. (1993). Understanding and Preventing Violence. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Riedel, M. (1993) Stranger Violence: A Theoretical Inquiry. NY: Garland Publishers.
Wolfgang, M. (1958) Patterns of Criminal Homicide. Philadelphia: Univ. of PA Press.

Last updated: 06/19/03
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